Table 1 Physiological effects of thyroid hormones

Cardiovascular

Inotropic

Chronotropic

Increase cardiac output

Increase blood pressure

Respiratory

Stimulate respiratory drive

Increase minute ventilation

Enhances hypoxic and hypercapnic drive of respiration

Increase tissue oxygenation

Gastrointestinal

Enhances peristalsis

Promote glucose absorption

Hepatobiliary

Increase hepatic low-density lipoprotein (LDL) receptor expression

Increase cholesterol metabolism and biliary excretion

Enhance gall bladder contractility

Increase the synthesis of liver enzymes

Renal

Needed for kidneys growth and development

Increase glomerular filtration rate

Promote urine concentration and dilution

Affect renal handling of electrolytes

Reproductive

Male:

Enhances the development of the testicles

Promote spermatogenesis

Affect erectile function

Affect seminal volume

Female:

Modulate the development of the ovaries, Fallopian tubes and the uterus

Regulate menstrual cycle

Promote intrauterine growth of fetuses

Modulate fertility

Nervous

Essential for brain development and nerve maturation

Important for motor co-ordination

Modulate psychoaffective functioning

Regulate the autonomic nervous system

Musculoskeletal

Influence bone growth and development

Regulate bone strength

Affect osteotendinous reflexes

Modulate muscular contraction

Regulate skeletal muscle energy turnover

Integumentary system

Regulate keratinocytes proliferation

Control homeostasis

Immune system

Regulate the cellular immune response

Contribute to inflammatory response